SQL Command Cheat Sheet
Last updated on 10th Oct 2020, Blog, Tutorials
SQL often called Structured Query Language is a declarative and multi-paradigm language that is the domain-specific language used for designing and managing data models to organize the data in relational model databases. SQL was designed by Donald Chamberlin and Raymond Boyce. SQL first appeared in the year 1974. SQL is static typing and strong discipline. SQL supports cross-platform operating systems. The file extension will be .sql and was developed by ISO/IEC. SQL has different sublanguages called statements to perform different operations based on the required operation.
What is SQL? Why do we need it?
SQL is a database language used to query and manipulate the data in the database.
Main objectives:
- To provide an efficient and convenient environment
- Manage information about users who interact with the DBMS
The SQL statements can be categorized as
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Data Definition Language(DDL) Commands:
- CREATE: creates a new database object, such as a table.
- ALTER: used to modify the database object
- DROP: used to delete the objects.
Data Manipulation Language(DML) Commands:
- INSERT: used to insert a new data row record in a table.
- UPDATE: used to modify an existing record in a table.
- DELETE: used delete a record from the table.
Data Control Language(DCL) Commands:
- GRANT: used to assign permission to users to access database objects.
- REVOKE: used to deny permission to users to access database objects.
Data Query Language(DQL) Commands:
- SELECT: it is the DQL command to select data from the database.
Data Transfer Language(DTL) Commands:
- COMMIT: used to save any transaction into the database permanently.
- ROLLBACK: restores the database to the last committed state.
Identifying Data Types
Data types specify the type of data that an object can contain, such as integer data or character data. We need to specify the data type according to the data to be stored.
Following are some of the essential data types:
Data Type | Used to Store |
---|---|
int | Integer data |
smallint | Integer data |
tinyint | Integer data |
bigint | Integer data |
decimal | Numeric data type with a fixed precision and scale. |
numeric | numeric data type with a fixed precision and scale. |
float | floating precision data |
money | monetary data |
datetime | data and time data |
char(n) | fixed length character data |
varchar(n) | variable length character data |
text | character string |
bit | integer data with 0 or 1 |
image | variable length binary data to store images |
real | floating precision number |
binary | fixed length binary data |
cursor | cursor reference |
sql_variant | different data types |
timestamp | unique number in the database that is updated every time in a row that contains timestamp is inserted or updated. |
table | temporary set of rows returned as a result set of a table-valued function. |
xml | store and return xml values |
Managing Tables
Create Table
Table can be created using the CREATE TABLE statement. The syntax is as follows:
Example: Create a table named EmployeeLeave in Human Resource schema with the following attributes:
Columns | Data Type | Checks |
---|---|---|
EmployeeID | int | NOT NULL |
LeaveStartDate | date | NOT NULL |
LeaveEndDate | date | NOT NULL |
LeaveReason | varchar(100) | NOT NULL |
LeaveType | char(2) | NOT NULL |
- CREATE TABLE HumanResources.EmployeeLeave
- (
- EmployeeID int NOT NULL,
- LeaveStartDate datetime NOT NULL,
- LeaveEndDate datetime NOT NULL,
- LeaveReason varchar(100),
- LeaveType char(2) NOT NULL );
Constraints in SQL
Constraints define rules that must be followed to maintain consistency and correctness of data. A constraint can be created by using either of the following statements:
- CREATE TABLE statement
- ALTER TABLE statement
- CREATE TABLE table_name
- (
- column_name CONSTRAINT constraint_name constraint_type
- )
Types of Constraints:
Constraint | Description | Syntax |
---|---|---|
Primary key | Columns or columns that uniquely identify all rows in the table. | CREATE TABLE table_name( col_name [CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY] (col_name(s))) |
Unique key | Enforces uniqueness on non primary key columns. | CREATE TABLE table_name( col_name [CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE KEY] (col_name(s)) ) |
Foreign key | Is used to remove the inconsistency in two tables when the data depends on other tables. | CREATE TABLE table_name( col_name [CONSTRAINT constraint_name FOREIGN KEY] (col_name) REFERENCES table_name (col_name) ) |
Check | Enforce domain integrity by restricting the values to be inserted in the column. | CREATE TABLE table_name( col_name [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] CHECK (expression) (col_name(s)) ) expression: IN, LIKE, BETWEEN |
Modifying Tables
Modify table using ALTER TABLE statement when:
- Adding column
- Altering data type
- Adding or removing constraints
Syntax of ALTER TABLE:
- ALTER TABLE table_name
- ADD column_name;
- ALTER TABLE table_name
- DROP COLUMN column_name;
- ALTER TABLE table_name
- ALTER COLUMN column_name data_type;
Renaming a Table
A table can be renamed whenever required using RENAME TABLE statement:
- RENAME TABLE old_table_name TO new_table_name;
Dropping a Table versus Truncate Table
A table can be dropped or deleted when no longer required using DROP TABLE statement:
- DROP TABLE table_name;
The contents of the table can be deleted when no longer required without deleting the table itself using TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
- TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Manipulating Data
Storing Data in a Table
Syntax:
- INSERT INTO table_name (col_name1, col_name2, col_name3…)
- VALUES (value1, value2, value3…);
Example: Inserting data into Student table.
- INSERT INTO Student (StudentID, FirstName,LastName,Marks)
- VALUES (‘101’,’John’,’Ray’,’78’);
Example: Inserting multiple data into Student table.
- INSERT INTO Student
- VALUES (101,’John’,’Ray’,78),
- (102,‘Steve’,’Jobs’,89),
- (103,‘Ben’,’Matt’,77),
- (104,‘Ron’,’Neil’,65),
- (105,‘Andy’,’Clifton’,65),
- (106,‘Park’,’Jin’,90);
Copying Data from one table to another:
- INSERT INTO table_name2
- SELECT * FROM table_name1
- WHERE [condition]
Updating Data in a Table
Data can be updated in the table using UPDATE DML statement:
- SELECT table_name
- SET col_name1 = value1 , col_name2 = value2…
- WHERE condition
Example update marks of Andy to 85
- SELECT table_name
- SET Marks = 85
- WHERE FirstName = ‘Andy’
Deleting Data from a Table
A row can be deleted when no longer required using DELETE DML statement.
Syntax:
- DELETE FROM table_name
- WHERE condition
- DELETE FROM Student
- WHERE StudentID = ‘103’
Deleting all records from a table:
- DELETE table_name
Retrieving Attributes
One or more column can be displayed while retrieving data from the table.
One may want to view all the details of the Employee table or might want to view few columns.
Required data can be retrieved data from the database tables by using the SELECT statement.
The syntax of SELECT statement is:
- SELECT [ALL | DISTINCT] select_column_list
- [INTO [new_table_name]]
- [FROM [table_name | view_name]]
- [WHERE search condition]
Consider the following Student table:
StudentID | FirstName | LastName | Marks |
---|---|---|---|
101 | John | Ray | 78 |
102 | Steve | Jobs | 89 |
103 | Ben | Matt | 77 |
104 | Ron | Neil | 65 |
105 | Andy | Clifton | 65 |
106 | Park | Jin | 90 |
Retrieving Selected Rows
To retrieve selected rows from a table use WHERE clause in the SELECT statement.
- SELECT *
- FROM Student
- WHERE StudentID = 104;
HAVING Clause is used instead of WHERE for aggregate functions.
Comparison Operators
Comparison operators test for the similarity between two expressions.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_list
- FROM table_name
- WHERE expression1 comparison_operatore expression2
Example of some comparison operators:
- SELECT StudentID,Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks = 90;
- SELECT StudentID,Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE StudentID > 101;
- SELECT StudentID,Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks != 89;
- SELECT StudentID,Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks >= 50;
Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to SELECT statement to retrieve records based on one or more conditions. More than one logical operator can be combined to apply multiple search conditions.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_list
- FROM table_name
- WHERE conditional_expression1 [NOT]
- conditional_expression2
Types of Logical Operators:
OR Operator
- SELECT StudentID,Marks,
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks= 40 OR Marks=56 OR Marks = 65;
AND Operator
- SELECT StudentID,Marks,
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks= 89 AND Marks=56 AND Marks = 65;
NOT Operator
- SELECT StudentID,Marks,
- FROM Student
- WHERE NOT LastName = “Jobs”;
Range Operator
Range operator retrieves data based on range.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_name1, col_name2….
- FROM table_name
- WHERE expression1 range_operator expression2 AND expression3
Types of Range operators:
BETWEEN
- SELECT StudentID,Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks BETWEEN 40 AND 70;
NOT BETWEEN
- SELECT FirstName,Marks,
- FROM Student
- WHERE Marks NOT BETWEEN 40 AND 50;
- Retrieve Records That Match a Pattern
- Data from the table can be retrieved that match a specific pattern.
- The LIKE keyword matches the given character string with a specific pattern.
- SELECT *
- FROM Student
- WHERE FirstName LIKE ‘Ro%’
- SELECT *
- FROM Student
- WHERE FirstName LIKE ‘_e%’
Displaying in a Sequence
Use ORDER BY clause to display the data retrieved in a specific order.
- SELECT StudentID, LastName,
- FROM Student
- ORDER BY Marks DESC;
Displaying without Duplication
The DISTINCT keyword is used to eliminate rows with duplicate values in a column.
Syntax:
- SELECT [ALL | DISTINCT] col_names
- FROM table_name
- WHERE search_condition
- SELECT DISTINCT Marks
- FROM Student
- WHERE LastName LIKE ‘o%’;
JOINS
Joins are used to retrieve data from more than one table together as a part of a single result set. Two or more tables can be joined based on a common attribute.
Types of JOINS:
Consider two tables Employees and EmployeeSalary
EmployeeID (PK) | FirstName | LastName | Title |
---|---|---|---|
1001 | Ron | Brent | Developer |
1002 | Alex | Matt | Manager |
1003 | Ray | Maxi | Tester |
1004 | August | Berg | Quality |
EmployeeID (FK) | Department | Salary |
---|---|---|
1001 | Application | 65000 |
1002 | Digital Marketing | 75000 |
1003 | Web | 45000 |
1004 | Software Tools | 68000 |
INNER JOIN
An inner join retrieves records from multiple tables by using a comparison operator on a common column.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_name1,colomn_name2, …
- FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
- ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
Example:
- SELECT e.LastName, e.Title, es.salary,
- FROM e.Employees INNER JOIN es.EmployeeSalary
- ON e.EmployeeID = es.EmployeeID
OUTER JOIN
An outer join displays the resulting set containing all the rows from one table and the matching rows from another table.
An outer join displays NULL for the column of the related table where it does not find matching records.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_name1,colomn_name2, …
- FROM table1 [LEFT|RIGHT|FULL]OUTER JOIN table2
- ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
Types of Outer Join
LEFT OUTER JOIN: In left outer join all rows from the table on the left side of the LEFT OUTER JOIN keyword is returned, and the matching rows from the table specified on the right side are returned the result set.
Example:
- SELECT e.LastName, e.Title, es.salary,
- FROM e.Employees LEFT OUTER JOIN es.EmployeeSalary
- ON e.EmployeeID = es.EmployeeID
RIGHT OUTER JOIN: In right outer join all rows from the table on the right side of the RIGHT OUTER JOIN keyword are returned, and the matching rows from the table specified on the left side are returned is the result set.
Example:
- SELECT e.LastName, e.Title, es.salary,
- FROM e.Employees LEFT OUTER JOIN es.EmployeeSalary
- ON e.EmployeeID = es.EmployeeID
FULL OUTER JOIN: It is a combination of left outer join and right outer join. This outer join returns all the matching and non-matching rows from both tables. Whilst, the matching records are displayed only once.
Example:
- SELECT e.LastName, e.Title, es.salary,
- FROM e.Employees FULL OUTER JOIN es.EmployeeSalary
- ON e.EmployeeID = es.EmployeeID
CROSS JOIN
Also known as the Cartesian Product between two tables joins each row from one table with each row of another table. The rows in the result set is the count of rows in the first table times the count of rows in the second table.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_name1,colomn_name2,column_name1 + column_name2 AS new_column_name
- FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2
EQUI JOIN
An Equi join is the same as inner join and joins tables with the help of foreign key except this join is used to display all columns from both tables.
SELF JOIN
In self join, a table is joined with itself. As a result, one row is in a table correlates with other rows in the same table. In this join, a table name is mentioned twice in the query. Hence, to differentiate the two instances of a single table, the table is given two aliases. Syntax:
- SELECT t1.c1,t1.c2 AS column1,t2.c3,t2.c4 AS column2
- FROM table1 t1 JOIN table2 t2
- WHERE condition
Subqueries
An SQL statement that is used inside another SQL statement is termed as a subquery.
They are nested inside WHERE or HAVING clause of SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements.
- Outer Query: Query that represents the parent query.
- Inner Query: Query that represents the subquery.
Using IN Keyword
If a subquery returns more than one value, we might execute the outer query if the values within the columns specified in the condition match any value in the result set of the subquery.
Syntax:
- SELECT column, column
- FROM table_name
- WHERE column [NOT] IN
- (SELECT column
- FROM table_name [WHERE conditional_expression] )
Using EXISTS Keyword
EXISTS clause is used with subquery to check if a set of records exists.
TRUE value is returned by the subquery in case if the subquery returns any row.
Syntax:
- SELECT column, column
- FROM table_name
- WHERE EXISTS
- (SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition)
Using Nested Subqueries
A subquery can contain more than one subqueries. Subqueries are used when the condition of a query is dependent on the result of another query, which is, in turn, is dependent on the result of another subquery.
Syntax:
- SELECT column, column
- FROM table_name
- WHERE column_name expression_operator
- (SELECT column_list FROM table_name
- WHERE column_name expression_operator
- (SELECT column_list FROM table_name
- WHERE [condition] ) )
Correlated Subquery
A correlated subquery can be defined as a query that depends on the outer query for its evaluation.
Using Functions to Customize ResultSet
Various in-built functions can be used to customize the result set.
Syntax:
- SELECT function_name (parameters)
Using String Functions
String values in the result set can be manipulated by using string functions.
They are used with char and varchar data types.
Following are the commonly used string functions are:
Function Name | Example |
---|---|
left | SELECT left(‘RICHARD’ ,4) |
len | SELECT len (‘RICHARD’) |
lower | SELECT lower (‘RICHARD’) |
reverse | SELECT reverse (‘ACTION’) |
right | SELECT right (‘RICHARD’ ,4) |
space | SELECT ‘RICHARD’ + space(2) + ‘HILL’ |
str | SELECT str (123.45,6,2) |
substring | SELECT substring (‘Weather’ ,2,2) |
upper | SELECT upper(‘RICHARD’) |
Using Date Functions
Date functions are used to manipulate date time values or to parse the date values.
Date parsing includes extracting components, such as day, month, and year from a date value.
Some of the commonly used date functions are:
Function Name | Parameters | Description |
---|---|---|
dateadd | (date part, number, date) | Adds the number of date parts to the date. |
datediff | (date part, date1, date2) | Calculates the number of date parts between two dates. |
Datename | (date part, date) | Returns date part from the listed as a character value. |
datepart | (date part, date) | Returns date part from the listed as an integer. |
getdate | 0 | Returns current date and time |
day | (date) | Returns an integer, which represents the day. |
month | (date) | Returns an integer, which represents the month. |
year | (date) | Returns an integer, which represents the year. |
Using Mathematical Functions
Numeric values in a result set can be manipulated in using mathematical functions.
The following table lists the mathematical functions:
Function Name | Parameters | Description |
---|---|---|
abs | (numeric_expression) | Returns an absolute value |
acts,asin,atan | (float_expression) | Returns an angle in radians |
cos, sin, cot,tan | (float_expression) | Returns the cosine, sine, cotangent, or tangent of the angle in radians. |
degrees | (numeric_expression) | Returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to specifies value. |
exp | (float_expression) | Returns the exponential value of the specified value. |
floor | (numeric_expression) | Returns the largest integer less than or equal to the specified value. |
log | (float_expression) | Returns the natural logarithm of the specified value. |
pi | 0 | Returns the constant value of 3.141592653589793 |
power | (numeric_expression,y) | Returns the value of numeric expression to the value of y |
radians | (numeric_expression) | Converts from degrees to radians. |
rand | ([seed]) | Returns a random float number between 0 and 1. |
round | (numeric_expression,length) | Returns a numeric expression rounded off to the length specified as an integer expression. |
sign | (numeric_expression) | Returns positive, negative or zero. |
sqrt | (float_expression) | Returns the square root of the specified value. |
Using Ranking Functions
Ranking functions are used to generate sequential numbers for each row to give a rank based on specific criteria.
Ranking functions return a ranking value for each row. Following functions are used to rank the records:
- row_number Function: This function returns the sequential numbers, starting at 1, for the rows in a result set based on a column.
- rank Function: This function returns the rank of each row in a result set based on specified criteria.
- dense_rank Function: The dense_rank() function is used where consecutive ranking values need to be given based on specified criteria.
These functions use the OVER clause that determines the ascending or descending sequence in which rows are assigned a rank.
Using Aggregate Functions
The aggregate functions, on execution, summarize the values for a column or group of columns and produce a single value.
Syntax:
- SELECT aggrgate_function ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
- FROM table_name
Following are the aggregate functions:
Function Name | Description |
---|---|
avg | returns the average of values in a numeric expression, either all or distinct. |
count | returns the number of values in an expression, either all or distinct. |
min | returns the lowest value in an expression. |
max | returns the highest value in an expression. |
sum | returns the total of values in an expression, either all or distinct. |
GROUPING DATA
Grouping data means to view data that match a specific criteria to be displayed together in the result set.
Data can be grouped by using GROUP BY, COMPUTE,COMPUTE BY and PIVOT clause in the SELECT statement.
GROUP BY Clause
Summarizes the result set into groups as defined in the query by using aggregate functions.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_list
- FROM table_name
- WHERE condition
- [GROUP BY [ALL] expression]
- [HAVING search_condition]
COMPUTE and COMPUTE BY Clause
This COMPUTE clause, with the SELECT statement, is used to generate summary rows by using aggregate functions in the query result.
The COMPUTE BY clause can be used to calculate summary values of the result set on a group of data.
Syntax:
- SELECT column_list
- FROM table_name
- ORDER BY column_name
- COMPUTE aggregate_function (column_name)
- [BY column_name]
PIVOT Clause
The PIVOT operator is used to transform a set of columns into values, PIVOT rotates a table-valued expression by turning the unique values from one column in the expression into multiple columns in the output.
Syntax:
- SELECT *
- FROM table_name
- PIVOT (aggregate function (value_column)
- FOR pivot_column
- IN (column_list)
- ) table_alias
Conclusion
SQL is used to perform database operations on many relational model databases to perform several crud operations. The common language for all relational model databases is SQL (Structured Query Language). The formula only differs in all the databases. All the features in SQL cheat sheet commands can be used to performs mostly all the complex operations or data requirements in any application or directly to generate reports or data files to export or import to or from respectively from the databases.
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